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Promoting Australian Native Foods for Community Change
by Dr Ken Dyer
Department of Geographical and Environmental Studies
University of Adelaide
and
Organically Registered Primary Producer,
Clarendon SA
President, Southern Vales Bush Foods Inc
Promoting Australian Native Foods for Community Change
by Dr Ken Dyer
Department of Geographical and Environmental Studies
University of Adelaide
and
President, Southern Vales Bush Foods Inc
Clarendon SA
Abstract
Community changes sought and potentially achievable from more
widespread, systematic growing of Australian Native Foods are easy to
identify. They include:
• the establishment of smaller, more closely integrated, but still
economically viable local communities;
• communities who do their members and their environments good by
eating lower down the food/energy chain in more ecologically and
nutritionally friendly ways.
The reasons why such changes are difficult to effect in practice are
because the changes in behaviours, social attitudes and social structures
needed entail at least a partial reversal of three currently dominant
social trends: that towards globalisation, urbanisation and
individualistic competition rather than community independence,
selfsufficiency and social cooperation; that towards downgrading food
production, preparation and eating as socially important rituals; and that
which sees agribusiness becoming dominant and food becoming uniform and
commodified.
But it is not just these social trends which impede the adoption of
Australian Native Foods. The astounding successes of plant and animal
breeding, cultivation, harvesting and processing practices associated with
'non-native' foods, remind us that native foods will have to undergo great
improvements in productivity, harvestability, transportability and so
forth before they can be used in anything more than boutique, niche
markets.
We must effect the agricultural/horticultural changes needed to
increase growing and using native plants in ways which do not destroy
their ecological integrity and suitability, and which also reverse the
dominant social trends identified.
Case studies of some specific crops including quandongs, lemon myrtle
and macadamias, examination of problems establishing local businesses and
a Peak Industry Body for bushfoods, and the treatment of Aboriginal
interests in native food plants, show that successes thus far are limited.
1 Introduction and Background to the Australian Native Food Industry
The indigenous people of this country lived on the native foods of
Australia for 50,000 years or maybe more.
Before European settlement Aboriginal Australians ate rich, exciting
and balanced diets of seasonal fruits, nuts, roots, vegetables, meats
and fish - all indigenous varieties and species and each totally adapted
to this unique environment, the continent of Gondwanaland.
Isaacs (1987)
It should come as no surprise, therefore, that there is a range of food
plants available capable of providing, in conjunction with game and
seafood, a rich and healthy diet in all parts of Australia. What perhaps
is surprising is that so few of these food plants have been utilised by
those coming to this country in the last 250 years or so.
As a recognizable industry, the Australian Native Food Industry is less
than 20 years old and, with but a handful of exceptions, is focussing on
species which were virtually unknown to recent settlers as possible food
sources until the last two decades. A few far sighted, dedicated and
environmentally and culturally aware individuals got the industry going in
the 1980s and, in the 1990s, organizations such as Greening Australia, the
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), the
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC) and Commonwealth
Science and Industry Research Organization (CSIRO) have lent their
considerable weight to the development of the industry. Government
departments themselves, it has to be said, have been very much at the tail
end of these endeavours.
The mid-to later 1990s saw quite a few small growers and a handful of
larger players planting Australian native food plants with the intention
of making money. They, supported by a national conference, a RIRDC
commissioned outlook report and a RIRDC promoted research and development
plan, came together in a number of local and regional groups; these groups
are currently wrestling with the establishment of a Peak Industry Body. A
national journal has been established. Several universities and CSIRO have
very significant research programs started and Australian native foods are
becoming familiar items on restaurant menus, not just in this country but
around the world.
This paper will consider how the Australian Native Food Industry
(hereafter ANFI) as it has developed so far has promoted community change
and how it could, in the near term future, continue more effectively to do
so. Unfortunately there will be as much emphasis on the problems and
impediments as on the achievements and possibilities. But realism in these
matters is surely all-important.
First: why grow Australian Native Food plants and why establish an
Australian Native Food Industry? These really are two separate questions,
although obviously closely linked. Providing an answer to the second
question self-evidently depends on providing satisfactory answers to the
first; but it is quite logical to argue that we could and indeed should be
growing Australian native foods without necessarily seeking to establish
an Australian native food industry. One of the tensions in the embryonic
industry that exists at present is between those who want to develop an
industry which will look something like and be a standard part of the food
industry we already have and those who want nothing of the kind.
For simplicity we might recognise five reasons for growing native
foods.
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Food
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Native foods, both plant and animal are healthy, nutritious,
tasty, accessible and many are cheap. They can, in conjunction
with non-indigenous, more traditional foods, be the basis for
establishing an ANFI.
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Money
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Money can be made from growing and selling native foods; not as
much as many enthusiasts like to claim, but there is potential.
There is also potential in the related activities of ecotourism,
education, establishing nurseries and so forth.
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Biodiversity
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By growing a range of species, by selecting a number of
varieties of each species and by growing these species in
polyculture situations, biodiversity can be preserved and locally
enhanced. Species or local populations which are under threat from
seed/fruit/foliage/whole plant collecting can be particularly
protected.
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Landcare and general environment
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By planting indigenous species, revegetation and landcare
objectives can be achieved. By growing and using plant foods in
situ, significant energy savings can be effected.
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Preserving heritage and Indigenous culture
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By making these a major focus of the industry we recognise that
more than money, genetic material, food and ecosystems are
involved.
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It has long been one of the objectives of environmentalists to promote
local, more or less self-sustaining, and certainly sustainable, local
communities based on recognizable bioregions (Pepper 1996, Eckersley
1992). It also makes economic and social sense to have food producers and
food consumers adjacent; local economies, local social networks, local
skills and expertise flourish and energy expenditures and environmental
impacts generally are minimised. Growing Australian native plants in a way
and at a level which leads to the establishment of an Australian native
food industry can clearly be part of the means of strengthening local
communities (Trainer 1995, Douthwaite 1996).
2 The Current Size and Structure of the Industry
Commonly estimated figures for the size of the native food industry lie
between $10-$15 million pa. This figure excludes the macadamia industry,
which is currently of the order of $80 million which makes it one of
Australia's largest horticultural industries. There are only a couple of
businesses whose turnover exceeds $2million and there are thought to be
about 500 active participants in the industry apart from many Aboriginal
people from Land Councils involved up to now mainly in wild collecting
although beginning to move into horticultural projects.
A snapshot, as it were, of the industry is given in Table 1 which has
been compiled from a number of sources.
For our purposes, the Australian Native Food Industry (ANFI) can be
divided into four sectors:
· wild harvesters
· small-scale polyculture/permaculture
operations
· commercial, large-scale
monocultures along traditional western horticultural lines
· distributers and end
users, including wholesalers, exporters, processors, value-adders,
restaurateurs, etc.
In addition there are research and development organisations such as
CSIRO and a variety of organisations including commercial plant breeders
and nurseries which are closely associated with the industry. Very few of
the people or organisations associated with the ANFI are dependent
exclusively on it.
The overall structure of the industry is shown in Figure 1 and some of
the competing interests of the industry in Figure 2.
Wild harvesting is not sustainable, probably even at the current size
of the industry, although the impact on some critical species are greater
than on others. (See Table 2) Nevertheless, phasing out this part of the
industry - which is likely to happen over the next few years - will have
to be done sensitively, given that in many Aboriginal communities income
from this activity is very significant. But one of the objectives of the
ANFI could, and perhaps should, be - conceptually at least - the
deliberate establishment of ecosystems which can be harvested sustainably.
The rhetoric of Agenda 21, one of the main outcomes of the 1992 United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development, the so-called Earth
Summit, recognises that sustainable harvesting of ecosystems is
"essential to the cultural, economic and physical well being of
indigenous people" (Johnson 1993: 416)
There are many other problems with wild harvesting including cost,
uncertainty of supply, quality and toxicological issues. Up to and
including the present, the majority of the produce of the ANFI has been
and is sourced from wild harvest. This is clearly unsustainable. Over the
next few years, as plantations established recently come into production,
this will change.
This paper largely ignores the commercial side of the industry -
processors, exporters, the hospitality industry etc. Nor does it consider
research and development, although detailed genetic and horticultural
research clearly have their part to play in developing locally suitable
species the growth of which can be part of local viable communities. The
bulk of this paper will be a consideration of culture systems as they
apply to and can be utilised for growing and obtaining significant yields
from some of the commonly grown Australian native food plants.
3 The Five Reasons for Growing Australian Native Food Plants
3.1 For food: as a basis for a good diet and a complete Australian
cuisine
Table 3 lists 30 genera of plants which can be grown in southern
Australia. Well over half of these genera have at least two and in some
cases very many species which have commercial potential as food plants.
The genus Acacia is represented byu over 650 species in Australia
and Solanum has about 80 species native to Australia. Not all Acacia
or Solanum are edible - indeed many are toxic, but I cite these
statistics and give some details in Tables 4 and 5 to indicate the
geographic spread and dietary potential of Australia's native plants.
Of course only a fraction of these potential food plants have been
subject to any significant genetic, horticultural development, but the
list of those which have is still impressive.
One of the larger commercial suppliers of plants for the ANFI,
Australian Native Produce Industries PL, lists in its 1998 price list 58
species. Page (1998) has information on an additional half a dozen species
with significant commercial potential, and Berkinshaw (1998) mentions
several more. A number of reports have suggested that 15 or so of these
should be concentrated on at present as having the best prospects in the
short to mid term. Most of the traded value comes from a dozen or so
species which, as Table 6 shows, seem to satisfy the requirements that
they can feed and make money for their growers and play useful roles in
revegetation and maintenance of biodiversity roles.
These days, the web is the place to get the latest (if not always yet
the best) information and http://users.academy.net.au/~samantha/bushfood.html
has, amongst other things, detailed taxonomic, horticultural and culinary
details on more than a dozen native food species. For the more
traditionally minded, the books by industry pioneers Bruneteau, Cherikoff,
Isaacs and Robins demonstrate what has been achieved thus far.
There seems no doubt, then, that in their range of tastes, textures,
food values and genetic potential for further improvement, Australian
native foods can become the basis of a whole new cuisine and an
economically important industry. It has already happened to the macadamia
(Macadamia integrifolia , M heterophylla and hybrids between
them). The quandong (Santalum acuminatum) and lemon myrtle (Backhousia
citriodora) are the subject of vigorous and productive research
programs at present (CSIRO 1996). Page (1998) concludes that there is
considerable genetic diversity within a number of propulations of muntries
(Kunzea pomifera) that he studied, and, as shown in Table 7, PBR
protected varieties have been established in at least 15 species of
Australian native food plants (Berkinshaw 1998).
3.2 For money
I have said above that growing Australian native foods seems to be able
to make money for their growers; just how much money, though, is
problematic. There is no doubt that some of the financial estimates for
returns from the industry are little more than guess work and are wildly
inaccurate. For example, ANPI (1998) suggest that for muntries a growers
return of $24,750/ha could be achieved by the third year. Page (1998),
more realistically, suggests a net return of $6,218/ha for year three and
$13,746/ha for year four. But it is the experience of members of Southern
Vales Bush Foods Inc. that there is little, if any, market for Kunzea,
at least in South Australia and virtually no sales have been recorded,
although several members are now well into the third year of growing this
plant. Graham and Hart (1997) also warn that unless demand is boosted
there is a danger of oversupply of some native food in just four or five
years.
Markets for Australian native foods undoubtedly exist and can be
developed further. But they are largely at the 'upper', expensive,
exclusive end of the industry and not, in general, the sort of market
which local, small scale, community and ecologically minded producers have
in mind.
For example, the Draft Report on Marketing the Bushfood Industry, which
reports on a RIRDC funded research project, says that
"Effort is now needed for members to commit: ... to create
the groundwork to realise many of the opportunities provided by the
Olympics ..."
and
"There is at least a segment of top class chefs and
influential food writers who are enthusiastic about and strongly
believe in native foods, which they see as underdeveloped. This is
critical since it is very clear that there is a powerful top-down
impact on the broader market's food adoption trends."
(Cherikoff 1999 personal communication)
The potential tension between a top-down market-driven, export oriented
ANFI and the ecologically minded, community focussed polyculturists who
form the majority of native food growers is so obvious as to need little
further emphasis.
3.3 To protect and conserve the environment: revegetating, maintaining
biodiversity and caring for the land
Obviously, Australian native foods grow where they grow and that, until
two or three decades ago, was more or less where they were eaten. Modern
horticultural techniques including irrigation, fertilisation, soil
supplementation, pest control and selection of appropriate cultivars,
allows many plants to be grown in locations well outside their original
ranges. In the broader Adelaide region, all of the Australian native food
plants recognized as having the greatest potential - including tropical,
subtropical, arid and cool temperate species - can be and are being grown;
although not always, it has to be admitted, in a commercially viable way.
To be commercially viable, plants must be grown at reasonable
concentrations in accord with conventional horticultural principles. But
these principles still allow considerable flexibility as to just how they
are grown in detail. Broadly speaking, the alternatives, not all mutually
exclusive, are:
polyculture
permaculture
organic
monoculture.
Polyculture refers to the growing of a number of different species,
either interleaved or in smallish blocks in close proximity. It is the
only way in which anything like an ecosystem can be created; it maximises
biodiversity; with an appropriate choice of species it can be a valid
component of a regional revegetation strategy. Polyculture may be, but
need not be, organic. It is the method of choice of all the specialist
Australian native food producers in this part of South Australia and is
certainly compatible with a commercial profit-making business.
Permaculture refers to a method/philosophy of working with nature,
minimising energy and chemical use and maximising biodiversity. The aim,
according to one of the founders of permaculture, is "... to create
systems that are ecologically sound and economically viable which provide
for their own needs, do not exploit or pollute and are therefore
sustainable in the long term" (Mollison 1994: ??). A characteristic,
but not a necessity, of permaculture, is that it tends to utilise a very
large number of species, many times the number of species endemic to a
particular area. The effect is to maximise productivity, minimizing farm
inputs, while still maintaining genuine sustainability. Again,
permaculture may be organic, but need not formally be so. there are many
premaculture properties in this part of South Australia and two at least,
the Brookmans' Food Forest and Kenton Range Tree Farm grow significant
amounts of native food plants
Organic agriculture is defined by one of the major Australian
certifying bodies, the National Association for Sustainable Agriculture
Australia Ltd (NASAA) as
A system of agriculture able to balance productivity with low
vulnerability to problems such as pest infestation and environmental
degardation while maintaining the quality of the land for future
generations. (NASAA 1998 6)
The minimum requirements for certification is an organic farm plan
which inter alia shows how the following will be managed:
• soil management
• fertility management
• crop rotations
•weed control
• pest management
• disease management
• windbreaks and buffer zones
• biodiversity
• animal health
• water management
NASAA go on to say that
Clearly organic agriculture is not just agriculture which eschews
chemical inputs. It is a whole system of sustainable agriculture. (NASAA
1998: 5)
Monoculture is the form of agriculture with which most of us are
familiar. It is the method by which most of our grain, fruit, vegetables
and grapes are grown. There are monoculturists who are organically
certified, including some growing each of the above products, and many
more monoculturists minimise their chemical inputs; but not only is a
great deal of western agriculture formally unsustainable - for instance,
the energy inputs are greater than the energy harvested in many cases -
but it is not community oriented. Among the many problems of rural
communities in Australia and many other countries are declines in
population and rural services. As properties and the paddocks in them get
larger, as mechanisation and bulk handling become ever more dominant, as
chemical inputs become ever greater, the number of people needed to
produce the food bgecomes smaller and those who remain are specialist
machinery contractors, chemical engineers and accountants. Unfortunately,
the enormous pressures on all primary producers to go down this
monoculture, high input road are very great. Among Australian native food
plants macadamias are already largely monocultures and quandong, lemon
myrtle, native citrus and even Acacia are not far behind.
The Australian native food industry must recognise that these economic
pressures are there and that it is already a fair way down the monoculture
road. Inducements must be found to ensure that local monocultures can be
part of regional polycultures and that farms concentrating on just one or
two plants nevertheless are given benefits to establish heritage agreement
areas, windbreaks, appropriate ground covers, revegetate creeks, ridge
lines and sensitive degraded areas of land, and so forth to increase
biodiversity.
3.4 Preserving Australia's cultural and ecological heritage
A great deal of the knowledge of commercially promising native plant
species has come from communities of indigenous people. There is still a
great deal more 'traditional' knowledge which might be made available to
scientists, horticulturalists and nutritionists. There is a moral
imperative to reward the giving (or compensate the taking) of such
knowledge. As important is the recognition that indigenous cultures can be
maintained close to the land, that non indigenous cultures can learn to
become closer to the land and that for both the marriage of a human way of
life with the Australian landscape and all it contains is part of the
heritage and culture of Australia. The smell of gumtrees, the call of the
Kookaburra, the colour of Banksia blooms, the silent presence of kangaroos
are components of what makes Australia home. So too are the country towns
and the people in and around them. They will not endure unless we are
determined that they should. Australia is rightly proud of the quality and
variety of its food. To ensure that something of Australia's heritage is
preserved in its city restaurants and country pubs, on its barbeques and
around its camp fires is also preserving a part of Australia which all can
recognise.
4 Growing Australian Native Foods for Community Benefit
Showing that growing Australian native foods is compatible with
maintaining and enhancing local environments and local communities is not
the same as showing that these phenomena actually are happening. Economic
pressures on the ANFI are much the same as on most
agricultural/horticultural enterprises and the outcomes at least in many
cases are likely to be similar. Much of the current succesful developments
seem to be inimical to local communities and look set to destroy the
special characteristics of the ANFI.
4.1 Current horticultural and commercial developments
The great success of Australian native food plants is (or more
correctly, are, because there are two species involved) the Macadamia. But
these are grown almost everywhere in large monocultures and use
pesticides, fertiliser and other inputs at the level of most other
monocultural production systems. Macadamia were first commercialised in
Hawaii and they are widely grown in various parts of the USA, southern
Africa and several countries in Latin America. Most of the Macadamias
grown today are grafted hybrids between M.heterophylla and M.integrifolia.
Their commercial production is centred on northern NSW and southern
Queensland and they are the basis of important research, horticultural and
commercial activities which have added significantly to communities in
that part of Australia.
The first orchard of quandong, Santalum acuminatum, was
established in Quorn SA in 1974 based on seed collected from the southern
Flinders Ranges (Powell 1998) and there are now several other orchards
established from seed collected from superior trees identified at this and
other early established experimental orchards. Commercial trees are now
produced by grafting on to the best available rootstock. One of the
distinct features and advantages of quandongs is their ability to thrive
on irrigation from what by normal horticultural standards is very saline
water (EC of 4776 microsiemens/cm with 1264 mg per litre of chloride)
(Conroy 1996). This may provide opportunities for landholders in much of
arid Australia to establish an additional crop to produce cash flow in
addition to their traditional sheep or cattle raising activities. A
feasiblity study on the establishment of an Australian native food
industry in West Queensland has suggested that such an industry based on
this and other arid zone plants would be economically sustainable (Phelps
1997). In other words careful plant selection, rigorous plant breeding and
optimum horticultural techniques involving carefully monitored irrigation
and heavy mulching can provide economic opportunities for communities in
otherwise disadvantaged areas which are under considerable stress.
The next plant likely to be commercially exploited is the lemon myrtle Backhousia
citriodora. Graham & Hart (1997) estimated that the total planting
of lemon myrtle at that time was about 8ha which, at an estimated yield of
1.25 tonnes/ha, gave a total Australia wide production of 10 tonnes.
Bennet and Milgate (1996) tell us that
"Lemon scented myrtle ... are presently planted in
commercial plantations in NSW and Qld"
and that
"the expectation [is] that by 2001 production will exceed
500 tonnes dry weight B.citriodora and by 2005 120 tonnes B.anisata
[aniseed myrtle]".
This implies a 50-fold increase in production in 5 years for lemon
myrtle. Not without reason some authorities in the industry have labelled
this "lemon myrtle madness".
There are many other examples. Acacia species are being grown in
large cultures, as are bush tomatoes. Desert limes, wild limes and other
native citrus are being grafted on to, and in some cases hybridised with
conventional commercial citrus rootstock with a view to large-scale
orchard cultivation.
At the other end of the production spectrum developments are also under
way. Warrigal greens, Tetragonia tetragonoides are now being grown
hydroponically. The objective, according to Ms Amani Ahmed of the
Department of Environmental Horticulture at Sydney's University of
Technology, is
to produce crops of sufficient quantity and quality to make them a viable,
and novel, product option for major supermarket chains. Hydroponics are
used to produce faster growing, grit free crops of a more consistent
quality. Hydroponics also allows better control of nutrients and can
produce differing qualities of the same plant by varying the nutrient
intake. This way the variety which will be best for commercial cultivation
can be selected. Trials such as these it is claimed will overcome other
problems which have held back native Australian plants such as Warrigal
greens and bush tomatoes, from supermarkets and suburban kitchens.
Warrigal greens have compounds in the leaves which prevent them from being
eaten fresh, so they have to be blanched first. It is hoped to reduce the
toxicity of the plants by controlling the nutrient intake to produce a
leafy vegetable which can be mixed straight into a salad. The first trials
of the Warrigal greens reduced the toxicity enough for the Warrigal greens
to be eaten without blanching.
Other species on which this sort of laboratory based work is being done
include Bush tomatoes, pigface, a plant with a red fruit described as a
"salty strawberry", and native celery. The whole project, it is
claimed, will lead to a major expansion of the native Australian food
market. and allow fresh or frozen supply for international and domestic
market. (The URL for the description of this work is www.uts.edu.au/new/archives/1998/february/0.9.html)
The consequence from all this is clear. Most Australian native food
plants are likely to go the way of macadamias. They will lose the
distinctive features of Australian native foods - they will certainly
cease to be anything which could be called 'bush tucker', and their
environmentally friendly, ecologically sustainable manner of utilisation
could be drastically changed if not lost altogether.
4.2 What should be done?
The ANFI must organise nationally in a way which will allow the
promotion and achieving of the five objectives of good food, adequate
financial returns, maintained biodiversity, environmental protection, and
cultural and heritage preservation outlined in the first part of this
paper. The question then is how these objectives can be achieved in a way
which maintains and enhances its local and regional character ie maintains
and enhances community.
The first must surely be an emphasis on organic growing methods.
This is in line with one of the major trends in agriculture/horticulture
in the western world. Graham McNally, a former chair of Biological Farmers
of Australia and a director of Kialla Fine Foods PL, is quoted as saying:
"Growth in the past 12 months has been very marked and that
trend could well continue. It follows the overseas trend".
Ross Cowling, who runs United Organics, a Brisbane organic wholesaler,
predicts that
"specialist fruit shops will move towards organics in their
efforts to find a marketing edge and survive in the market ... I
expect the local fruit and vegetable store will become the local
organic fruit and vegetable store within five years or so, or it
won't survive in the face of the competition from the supermarket
chains".
Both of these quotes come from Acres 7, No. 2, March 1999. Other
straws in the organic wind include the establishment of the Organic
Federation of Australia (OFA) in 1998 and the revised structure and
strengthening of the Organic Produce Advisory Committee at the Federal
Government level.
Second, there has to be formalization of and certification of
polycultural production systems. More than one commentator has
suggested that, alongside organic certification and registration schemes,
there should be an enforceable scheme for Australian native foods along
the following lines:
AWH native Australian food Wild Harvested
APPC native Australian food grown in Plantation Polyculture
AM native Australian food grown in Monoculture
But we need more than this. There should be encouragement for and a
mechanism by which monoculturists can be part of regional polyculture or
revegetation schemes. Catchment management and similar bioregional
environmental organisations might certificate primary producers as
ARPC native Australian food grown in Regional Polyculture
or perhaps where a designated proportion of a property is given over to
approved native species
ARSM native Australian food grown in Sustainable Monoculture
Third there has to be an emphasis on everything local and regional.
This would include such things as the development of cooperative marketing
schemes, local and regional biodiversity discovery and enhancement schemes
and the like.
These are often a commercial and survival necessity. As Graham Brookman
says in his characteristically blunt and illuminating way
Many of the food foresters with moderate surpluses over their
household needs undergo a bitter realisation that they can give the
products away but it is so time consuming to sell small quantities of
food for profit that they may as well not do it. Food co-operatives
have helped to solve that problem for the more creative operators.
Many people started with the idea of self reliance but found that they
were very good at growing particular crops and have expanded
production to the point of commercial viability. It is they and the
people who designed their properties for substantial surpluses who can
answer the question of whether such properties can be commercially
viable.
(Brookman 1995)
The examples we have are, of course, not just concerned with Australian
native foods. The Green Line (www.the greenline.com.au)
"was established in 1994 to build visible, measurable,
self-duplicating consumer demand for health and environment
products".
It pays up to 10% of its income back to members who bring new members
into the scheme, ie up to 10% of money spent by new customers is funnelled
back to those who introduce them. Membership is doubling every six months.
The latest activity of The Green Line is to acquire a long-term lease on
14.5 ha of farming land at Yarra Glen close to Melbourne which is used to
provide garden allotments to members who can produce their own food and
dispose of excess back to The Green Line.
There are many less commercial, more regionally focussed groups such as
TROPO, the Tweed Richmond Organic Producers Association (www.nor.com/community/
organic/about tropo.htm). This group also has a very strong bushfood
connection.
There are obvious opportunities for tourism and educational
opportunities built around Australian native food production and
associated ventures. Mother Natures Bush Tucker (www.big volcano.com.au/custom/bushfood/bushfood/html)
in northern NSW is an exemplar here:
At Mother Natures Bush Tucker, our focus is directed towards the
promotion and preservation of our unique heritage, and in
particular, thepropagation and use of indigenous plants.
With more than 250 edible plant species in the Wollumbin Volcano
regionalone, there's a lot of material to work with when we run
educationalseminars and workshops on Australian native bush foods, and
how to grow anduse them!
We invite you to visit our Wildlife Refuge and native plant forest
of regenerated native and edible rainforest to see for yourself,
Mother Natures abundance.
Visitors are provided with valuable insight into the diversity of
rainforest ecosystems, and shown a mixed species re-afforestation
project in progress. The species used and plant selection is
discussed, while you also learn how to plan and establish your own
organic edible bush tucker garden.
Seminars and workshops address all types of planting and garden
environments, from large commercial operations to small edible bush
gardens in your high rise apartment or unit. Programs are
designed to foster a greater appreciation and understanding of our
local natural and cultural heritage, and can be customized to your
needs. These programs can be delivered at our premises or yours.
(from their web page at the above URL)
Graham and Anne Marie Brookman's The Food Forest at Gawler close to
Adelaide, with their year round activities in permaculture design, organic
farming, property planning and bushtucker growing courses is a local
example.
If what I have argued has any validity, we would expect to see whole
communities centred around organic, permacultural, native Australian
oriented agriculture. It would be wrong to say that such communities are
numerous - but there are some indications. Maleney in SE Queensland is
world renowned (see Holdaway 1997, Trainer 1995 and Douthwaite 1996). The
Bush Resources project of the Rural Enterprise Unit of the Central Land
Council is an indication of the way indigenous people may retain their
connection with the ANFI (http://www.clc.org.au/clc/Rural/bushfood.htm.).
Perhaps the best example - which involves more than one local
government authority - state and commonwealth government departments,
schools, industry and business organizations and local Aborigines - is the
Arid Zone Bush Tucker Project at Broken Hill. I can do little better than
reproduce the words of Steve Ross writing in issue 8 of Australian
Bushfoods Magazine (1998: 12-13):
The Arid Zone Bush Tucker Project has been running since March 1998
with a funding cocktail from DEETYA (Department of Employment,
Education, Training and Youth Affairs). The Broken Hill City Council,
The Central Darling Shire, Pasminco Mining and The Area Consultative
Committee.
The aims of the project are to help establish the bush tucker
industry within the far west region on a commercial base. There will
be plantation and orchard growing of Australian bush food species
suited to the region and the carrying out of research and development
projects for the long term benefit of the developing industry.
Interested growers are supported in two forms, technical
information and secondly with business planning and advice on the
establishment of such a venture.
The project is networking through the state and Australia with
information on the project and industry with the many people
interested in Australian bush foods.
The regional site visits are carried out on a professional scale
with site analysis that includes:
· measuring the area for
design drawings
· soil analysis for
technical support on soil improvement (soils highly alkaline)
· topography assessment
for earth works to incorporate contour furrowing to reduce rainfall
runoff
· deep ripping behind
the contour furrowing for water absorption into the ground to conserve
water within the soil
· mulching materials
selection such as living (mulching plants) or organic materials
· irrigation design to
enhance deep ripping growth and production
· plant species
selection
· ongoing technical
support when plants are in the ground for pest, disease and nutrient
problems
· market and business
support through the local BEC (Business Enterprise Development Centre)
and packaging technologies
· working with people
developing food, resale and product value adding within the region
· technical support to
existing growers of quandongs within the region.
The project has also been involved with helping establish a
bushfood and native nursery at Bourke with the Gundabooka DEP
Aboriginal corporation. The nursery has high design standards with
drainage, irrigation systems and on the job training in horticultural
propagation and soil mixing for Australian native plants.
Research and development is also one of the aims the project is
committed to, with a small program running a selection of eight
species of Acacia. The research looks at selections of fast
growing plants, pest and diseases resistance, seed yields, and
importantly taste and nutritional values. The species selected for the
trials are Acacia aneura, iteaphylla, kempeana, ligulata,
longifolia, oswaldii, pycnantha and victoriae.
To create awareness of the Australian native food industry and its
range of produce, the project staff work in with the Departments of
Agriculture, Land and Water Conservation, State Regional Development
and Fair Trading, National Parks and Wild Life Service, Agribusiness
officers and West 200 and the local Aboriginal Corporation to give
them a base for up-to-date technical and industry information. This
also includes joint community development days with information and
displays highlighting the diversity of industries that could provide
economic avenues for the region.
A local primary school has taken on an educational role as well,
with a term curriculum focus on bush foods. The project is also
helping with an environmental grant application to create a bushfoods
garden in the school grounds.
Pam Allen, the state Environment Minister, recently presented a
cheque to the school after the hand back to the Aboriginal community
of Mutawitji National Park. The garden has been started and some
plantings of local bushfoods are in."
One of the models for the devlopment of the native food industry which
might be looked at more closely is the establishment by the wine industry
of designated wine-producing areas. Designations such as Coonawara,
Barossa Valley, Hunter Valley and so on, are extremely valuable to wine
makers and jealously guarded. They indicate, not a specific type of wine
or grape, but an overall quality and perhaps a style of winemaking. These
regions are defined on the basis of sharing climate, soil type and
physical proximity but in many of them including the Barossa Valley and
Mclaren Vale with which I am directly familiar, there is also a definite
community feel which wine bushing festivals, food and wine events, musical
festivals and so forth foster.
Field work, genetic research and plant breeding development
programs to discover and develop new food crops and utilise the same sort
of potential that has given us the wonderful array of fruit and vegetables
- apples, blueberries, corn, ... wheat, yams, zucchinis - that we enjoy
today. The trick will be to ensure that this research and development and
resulting commercialisation does not result in the loss of species,
strains and varieties of the sort that has resulted in us having only a
handful of commercial varieties of most of these foodstuffs. At the moment
this is not the case. Every survey is bringing to light the incredible
amounts of genetic variability which exists in Australian food plants.
Under conventional PBR approval systems there is a clear financial
incentive for collectors and plant breeders to find and capitalise on new
species, varieties and genetic variants. There is a moral imperative to
reward those peoples and communities where their local knowledge
contributed significantly and ownership of land and resources should be
recognised. there is also an ecological and environmental imperative to
maintain biodiversity, especially in the regions being developed for
commercial production. These demands can each be met by ensuring that when
a new specimen with commercial potential is identified, a binding
agreement is drawn up between the finder, the local community and the
organisation charged with developing that plant's potential. This would
ensure that, amongst other things, a royalty is collected at point of sale
in the case of food plants to ensure further exploration, research and
development and community suppport where appropriate. This is one way in
which Aboriginal knowledge, prior ownership and ongoing relationship
with the land can be recognised, although the principle involved is a
perfectly general one.
It should be clear that government at all levels must support these
initiatives, partly through tax breaks, research funds, infrastructure
support and so forth; partly through legislation on such things as genetic
engineering, biocide use, environmental controls; and partly through
resisting those aspects of globalisation and so-called free trade which
provide people the world over with the lowest common denominators of
variety, environmental protection and quality of life provisions. But
although governments can help, their support thus far has not been good
and the industry must not rely on governments. (The Senate conducted an
enquiry into the Commercialisation of Australian Native Wildlife which was
published in 1998 and the Environment and Natural Resources Committee of
the Victorian Parliament has just published a Discussion Paper on
Utilisation of Victorian Native Flora and Fauna so perhaps things are
changing.)
5 A Conclusion About Australian Native Foods
It is clear that Australian native plants have the potential to
contribute significantly to the range of food plants and hence the range
of food products here in Australia and world wide. They are at the moment,
with but one exception, either totally undeveloped genetically or are at
the beginning of a very promising program of plant breeding. The number of
plants investigated compared to the number of possibilities known to exist
and those which have begun to be developed show impressive amounts of
genetic variation, ie potential for selection. The plants themselves
originate in all the regions of Australia, tropical, temperate, arid,
coastal and upland. Some of them are closely related to well known species
in the rest of the world including rubus species, citrus species, ficus
species, solanum species and others. Possibilities for grafting and
hybridisation are obvious. Others are unlike anything known elsewhere in
either taste or texture and some have levels of vitamins, fats and
proteins which are rarely matched in fruits and vegetables we already
have.
But when the plants have been selected, hybridised, grafted and grown
in climatic, soil conditions quite unlike those in which they naturally
occur they are very different from 'bush' plants. In many respects the
plants and their products will be developed and internationalised like
corn or potatoes, for example whose origins lie in the new world but which
have been taken up if not over by the old. Australia has already given the
world the macadamia, acacia seed and Warrigal greens (and many plants
producing essential oils, flowers and foliage), there is no reason why it
should stop there.
The Australian native plant industry is lucky in that it has the raw
materials - along with Australian native fauna - for a whole new cuisine
and food industry. This can and should be established in a way which is
ecologically sustainable ie which maintains both human communities and the
ecosystems of which they are a part. Such an industry will not need
genetic engineering and it should be as organic, polycultural and locally
based as we can make it. It should look to Australia's established local
communities, particularly those already established around local products
and local events for its foci of growth. Because of its direct links with
the land and local ecosystems which can be maintained and enhanced it can
serve to remind all Australians of their links with their land.
References
Beal A (1998) Commercialisation of Native Citrus, Australian
Rainforest Bushfood Industry Technical Journal 6: 12
Bennet T & Milgate B (1996) ANSAS - The Australian Natives
Sustainable Agriculture System in New Crops, New Products, RIRDC
Research Paper 97/21, RIRDC, Kingston, ACT
Berkinshaw T D (1998) The Business of Bush Foods: ecological and
socio-cultural implications, Master of Environmental Studies
dissertation, Mawson Graduate Centre for Environmental Studies, University
of Adelaide
Brookman G (1995) Are permaculture fruit forests a sustainable
commercial option? in Proceedings of Sixth Conference of the Australian
Council on Tree and Nut Crops, Lismore 1995, URL http://www.ug.edu.au/gagregko/html
Bruneteau J-P (1996) Tukka Real Australian Food Angus and
Robertson Sydney
Cherikoff V (1992) Uniquely Australian A wildfood cookbook Bush
Tucker Supply Australia Sydney
Cherikoff V & Isaacs J (1989) The Bush Food Handbook: How to
gather, grow, process and cook Australian wild foods, Ti Tree Press,
Sydney
Cherikoff V (1993) The Bush Food Handbook, Bush Tucker Supply
Australia
Conroy R (1996) Bush Peach Becomes a Commercial Crop, Rural Research
172: 11-14
CSIRO (1996) Growing Food from the Bush, Rural Research 172:
9-10
Douthwaite R (1996) Short Circuit. Strengthening Local Economics for
Security in an Unstable World, The Lilliput Press, Dublin
Eckersley R (1992) Environmentalism and Political Theory: Towards an
ecocentric approach University College London Press London
Environment and Natural Resources Committee, Parliament of Victoria
(1998) Utilisation of Victorian Native Flora and fauna A Discussion
Paper
Geno L (1997) Why Farm Bushfoods? Australian Bushfoods Magazine,
2: 4-5
Geno L (1996) Australian Bushfoods as a Model for Ecologically
Sustainable Development, Australian New Crops Newsletter, 9
4-6
Graham C & Hart D (1997) Prospects for the Australian Native
Bushfood Industry, RIRDC Research Paper 97/22, RIRDC, Kingston, ACT
Holdaway M (1997) Maleney Qld: Building Sustainable Community - A
Practical Guide to Transformation, Master of Environmental Studies
dissertation, Mawson Graduate Centre for Environmental Studies, Adelaide
University
Isaacs J (1989) Bush Food, Aboriginal Food and Herbal Medicine,
Welden Publishing, Sydney
Johnson S P (ed) 1993) The Earth Summit: The United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) Graham and Trotman
Ltd london
Leigh and Briggs (1996)
Lister P R, Holford P, Hough T & Morrison D A (1996) Acacia
in Australia: Ethnobotany and Potential Food Crop in J. Janick Progress
in New Crops, ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA
Low T (1989) Bush Tucker: Australia's Wild Food Harvest, Angus
and Robertson, Sydney
Mollison B (1994) Introduction to Permaculture, 2nd ed, Tagari
Publications, Tyalgum, NSW
National Association for Sustainable Agriculture Australia Ltd (NASAA)
(1998) The Standards for Organic Agricultural Production, NASAA,
Stirling, SA
Page T (1998) Australian Native Food Assessment, Bachelor
Applied Science (Horticulture) Honours Dissertation, Institute of Land and
Food Resources, University of Melbourne
Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia (1998) Commercial
Utilisation of Australian Native Wildlife Report of the Senate Rural
and Regional Affairs and Transport References Committee Canberra
Pepper D (1996) Modern Environmentalism An Introduction
Routledge London and New York
Phelps D G (1997 Feasibility of a sustainable Bush food industry in
Western Queensalnd RIRDC Paper 97/37
Powell B and Powell F (1998) Pioneering quandong as a fruit Australian
Plants
19 p249
Robins J (1996) Wild Lime Cooking from the bushfood garden Allen
and Unwin Sydney
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) (1998)
Research and Development Plan for the Bushfood Industry 1998-2002,
RIRDC Publication 98/11, RIRDC, Kingston, ACT
Sykes S R (1997) Australian Native Limes (Eremocitrus and Microcitrus);
a citrus breeder's viewpoint, Australian Bushfoods Magazine 3:
12-15
Taylor R (1996) Sweet Rewards for Sharp-tasting Fruit, Rural
Research 172: 15-16
Trainer E (1995) The Conserver Society: Alternatives for
Sustainability Zed Books London, New Jersey
Table 1 The
Australian Native Food Plant Industry
|
Size
|
approx 150 operators, 54% suppliers, 46% processors and
resellers
|
|
Employment
|
approx 500 people
|
|
Retail Equivalent
|
Turnover $15 million
|
|
Farm Gate Value
|
$5 million
|
|
Average Turnover per grower
|
$8,600 pa
|
|
Average anticipated annual industry growth rate
|
> 50% pa
|
|
Regional Associations
|
Australian Rainforest Bushfood Association, ARBIA;
Queensland Bushfood Cooperative, QBC;
Southern Bushfood Association, SBA;
Southern Vales Bush Foods Inc. SVBF;
South East Sustainable Bushfood Industry group
|
|
Some related associations
|
Australian Quandong Industry Association AQIA
Australian Macadamia Society, AMS
650 members
ALGA Arid Lands Growers Association
|
|
Some of the more significant industrial/commercial
organisations
|
Bush Tucker Supply Australia
Australian Native Produce Industries
Australian Bushfood Magazine
|
Table 2 Rare,
Endangered and Vulnerable
Species of the Australian Native Food Plant
Industry
|
Species
|
Conservation Status of Wild Population
|
Source
|
|
Backhousia myrtifolia
(aniseed myrtle)
|
Rare
|
Leigh & Brigge (1996)
|
|
Billardiera scandens var scandens
(common appleberry)
|
Rare in SA
|
National Parks & Wildlife Act 1972 (SA)
|
|
Davidsonia pruriens var jerseyana
(Davidson plum)
|
Endangered
|
Leigh & Briggs (1996)
|
|
Eremocitrus glauca
(desert lime)
|
Vulnerable in SA
|
National Parks & Wildlife Act 1972 (SA)
|
|
Macadamia integrifolia, tetraphylla
(macadamias
|
Vulnerable
|
Leigh & Briggs (1996)
|
|
Syzygium paniculatum
(magenta lilly pilly)
|
Vulnerable
|
Leigh & Briggs (1996)
|
|
Microcitrus garrawayae, inodora
(wild limes)
|
Rare
|
Leigh & Briggs (1996)
|
Notes
A species is classified as rare if it is rare in the wild but
without any identifiable threat. This may include large populations in a
restricted area, or small populations over a wide range (Leigh &
Brigge 1996).
A species is classified as vulnerable if it is not currently
listed as endangered but is at risk over the longer time period of 20-50
years of disappearing from the wild (Leigh & Briggs 1996).
A species is classified as endangered if it is in serious risk
of disappearing from the wild within 10-20 years if current threats
continue (Leigh & Briggs 1996).
Source: compiled by Berkinshaw (1998)
Table 3: Some of the Australian Native Food Plant
Species
Suitable for Growing Commercially in southern Australia
|
Berries
|
|
|
|
Kunzea pomifera
|
(muntries)
|
A perennial, evergreen creeping shrub; small berries with a
wide variety of uses
|
|
Billardiera cymosa, B scandens*
|
(appleberries)
|
Appleberries (sweet and common) are climbing vine like plant
with small berries used in desserts
|
|
Rubus parvifolius, R rubifolia*
|
(native raspberry)
|
These are bushes which produces raspberries similar to European
varieties
|
|
Austromyrtus dulcis
|
(midyim berry)
|
A low shrub which produces small sweet but sharp berries
|
|
Solanum centrale*
|
(bush tomato)
|
A small shrub with small raisin-like spicy, piquant fruits.
Usable in a variety of savoury dishes.
|
|
Condiments and Flavours
|
|
|
|
Backhausia citriodora
|
(lemon myrtle)
|
A medium tree whose leaves are wonderfully lemon flavoured;
usable fresh or dried in a variety of dishes
|
|
Backhausia anisata
|
(aniseed myrtle
|
Similar to lemon myrtle but with aniseed tasting leaves and
flowers
|
|
Backhousia myrtifolia
|
(cinnamon myrtle)
|
Similar to the other myrtles but with cinnamon flavouring
|
|
Tasmannia lanceolata*
|
(native pepper)
|
A medium shrub whose leaves and berries have complex and strong
pepper flavours
|
|
Fruits and nuts
|
|
|
|
Capparis mitchellii*
|
(native orange)
|
A small bush with a small citrus-like fruit. Usable in avariety
of dishes as a citrus fruit
|
|
Leichhardtia australis
|
(native pear)
|
A medium bush which can be trellised. Small but tasty fruit
with a variety of peotential uses
|
|
Podocarpus elatus
|
(Illawarra plum)
|
A medium to large tree. Produces a fruit with an external seed
which has a pine/plum flavour.
|
|
Santalum acuminatum*
|
(sweet quandong)
|
A small treewhich produces fruit used in a variety of sweet
dishes or as a meat glaze. Has great potential
|
|
Syzygium leuhmanii*
|
(riberry)
|
A medium tree which produces smallis spicy fruit used for
desserts or for sauces for meats.
|
|
Macadamia integrifolia*,
|
(macadamia)
|
The commercial fruit
with extensive commercial plantings; the nuts are widely known and
used
|
|
Athertonai diversifolia
|
(blue almond)
|
A medium tree which produces a nut with some similarities to
macadamia
|
|
Eremocitrus glauca
|
(desert lime)
|
A small bush which can withstand severe droughts. A genuine
citrus with small pleasant flavoured fruit
|
|
Microcitrus spp*
|
(wild, finger lime)
|
Small bushes; good flavoured well coloured fruit; grafting
& hybridisation with Citrus species possible
|
|
Achronychia acidula
|
(lemon aspen)
|
A small to medium tree producing a small fruit exceedingly
acidic fruit
|
|
Davidsonia pruriens
|
(Davidsons plum)
|
A tall tree producing a fruit exceedingly rich in vitamin C
|
|
Herbs and leaf crops
|
|
|
|
Apium prostratum
|
(sea parsley)
|
A low ground cover. Its taste is closer to celery than parsely
but has similar uses.
|
|
Tetragonia tetragonoides*
|
(Warrigal spinach)
|
A low leafy ground cover plant. It is similar to European
spinach although it has a wider range of uses
|
|
Prostantheria rotundifolia
|
(native mint)
|
A native mint suitable for cooler moist conditions. Has similar
uses to European mint
|
|
Ocimum tenuiflorum
|
(native thyme)
|
A low shrub woith strong aromatic flavours. Becoming popular in
herb breads and pastas
|
|
Hibiscus spp*
|
(rosella)
|
Low bushes. The petals and buds can be used to make jams,
spreads and flavouring
|
|
Alpinia caerula
|
(native ginger)
|
A low bush; the berries can be eaten and the leaves used for
cooking
|
|
Seeds
|
|
|
|
Acacia spp, aneura, nurrayana, pycnantha , retinodes ,
victoriae*
|
(mulga), (golden wattle), (wirilda) etc
|
The wattles are all medium trees The seeds can be ground into
flour which are used in a wide variety of
foods including ice creams, hot drinks, flavouring for breads,
mousses etc
|
|
Brachychiton populneus*
|
(kurrajong)
|
A large tree with edible seeds. Can be used as coffee
substitute and as flavouring
|
|
Araucaria bidwillii
|
(Bunya pine)
|
A large tree with large pine type cones; the nuts are about the
size of Brazil nuts
|
|
Roots and tubers
|
|
|
|
Microseris lanceolata
|
(Murnong, yam daisy)
|
One of the staples of Koori diet but decimated by stock and not
exploited
|
|
Dipogon spp*
|
(chocolate lilly)
|
Can be used for seasoning, although not commercially exploited
|
|
|
(native leek)
|
Can be used for seasoning, although not commercially exploited
|
* One or more other species in the same genus which also have
commercial potential
Table 4 Some
of the Edible Species of Solanum
|
Species
|
Characteristics
|
|
S. aviculare
(kangaroo apple)
|
Orange-red fruit, red-brown seeds, plant not prickly, found in
coastal eastern Australia and SA
|
|
S. centrale
(desert raisin)
|
Yellow fruit dries light brown, pale seeds, exposed fruit,
plant hairy or with a few prickles, found in WA, NT, SA
|
|
S. cleistogamum
|
Yellow-green with purple flush fruit, tan seeds, plant prickly
and hairy, found in WA, NT
|
|
S. chippendalei
|
Yellow fruit, bitter black seeds and pith, plant prickly and
hairy, found in WA, NT, Qld
|
|
S. coactiliferum
(Western nightshade)
|
Yellow-brown fruit and seeds, found in all states except
Tasmania
|
|
S. dioicum
|
Greenish-yellow fruit, black seeds, fruit enclosed in calyz,
found in WA, NT
|
|
S. diversiflovum
|
Greenish-yellow fruit, black seeds, plants are prickly and
hairy, found in WA, NT
|
|
S. echinatum
(spiny tomato)
|
Ivory-green fruit, red-brown seeds, fruits enclosed in a
prickly calyx, found from tropical WA to Qld
|
|
S. ellipticum
(potato bush)
|
Yellow-green with purple flush fruit, pale seeds, plants
prickly and hairy, found in all states except Vic and Tasmania -
arid zone
|
|
S. esuriale (quena)
|
Yellow fruit, tan seeds, plant hairy with few prickles, found
in eastern Qld, N.Vic, WA, NT
|
|
S. gilesii
|
Bone fruit, pale seeds, found in WA, NT
|
|
S. hystrix
|
Black fruit, grey-black seeds, plant prickly
|
|
S. laciniatum
(kangaroo apple)
|
Yellow-orange fruit, red-brown seeds, plant not prickly, found
in eastern Australia, Vic, Tas, SA
|
|
S. lasiophyllum
(flannel bush)
|
Yellowish fruit, tan seeds, plant not prickly, found in WA,
swNT, nwSA
|
|
S. lucani
|
Green fruit, dark brown seeds, found in north of WA and NT
|
|
S. nigrum
(black nightshade)
|
Black fruit, bone seeds, plant not prickly, found in all states
near settlements
|
|
S. orbiculatum orbiculatum
|
Yellow-ivory fruit, tan seeds, plant prickly and hairy, found
in WA, NT and arid zone SA
|
|
S. simile
|
Greenish fruit, grey dark brown seeds, plant not prickly, found
in WA, SA, nwVic to nNSW
|
|
S. stelligerum
(devils needles)
|
Bright red fruit, tan seeds, plant prickly and hairy, found in
east NSW, Atherton Tablelands, Qld
|
|
S. vescum
|
Greenish fruit, grey-brown seeds, plant not prickly, found in
south east Australia, south Qld, NSW, Vic, Tas
|
Table 5 Some
Acacia Species Whose Seed is Potentially Useful in the Australian Native
Plant Food Industry
|
Species
|
Common Name
|
Seed Dry Weight
|
% Lipid
|
Aril Dry Weight
|
% Lipid
|
Remarks
|
|
A. aneura
|
Mulga
|
11.40
|
13.10
|
0.20
|
37.00
|
|
|
A. aspera
|
Rough Wattle
|
17.90
|
17.40
|
2.10
|
50.00
|
shrubby
|
|
A. bidwillii
|
Corkwood
|
16.92
|
6.60
|
no aril
|
-
|
v.lge seed
|
|
A. binervata
|
2-vein Hickory
|
19.00
|
10.30
|
1.70
|
24.00
|
|
|
A. dealbata
|
Silver Wattle
|
9.10
|
11.90
|
0.40
|
46.00
|
|
|
A. dercurrens
|
Black Wattle
|
14.60
|
12.30
|
0.80
|
30.00
|
|
|
A. implexa
|
Lightwood
|
17.80
|
10.20
|
2.40
|
51.00
|
|
|
A. iteaphylla
|
Flinders Range Wattle
|
32.80
|
10.20
|
0.70
|
64.00
|
|
|
A. ligulata
|
Small Cooba
|
34.20
|
10.00
|
7.90
|
57.00
|
seed held
|
|
A. longifolia
|
Sydney Golden Wattle
|
16.00
|
12.50
|
2.80
|
45.00
|
|
|
A. melanoxylon
|
Blackwood
|
9.60
|
5.90
|
3.90
|
13.00
|
seed held
|
|
A. myrtifolia
|
Myrtle Wattle
|
11.30
|
18.90
|
1.30
|
39.00
|
|
|
A. penninervis
|
Mountain Hickory
|
52.60
|
11.00
|
3.10
|
38.00
|
seed held
|
|
A. pycnantha
|
Golden Wattle
|
14.90
|
14.50
|
1.60
|
43.00
|
|
|
A. salicina
|
Willow Wattle
|
45.70
|
13.90
|
18.10
|
59.00
|
seed held
|
|
A. longifolia
var sophorae
|
Coast Wattle
|
18.20
|
14.80
|
5.50
|
42.00
|
seed held
|
|
A. verniciflua
|
Varnish Wattle
|
9.20
|
15.90
|
1.10
|
29.00
|
|
|
A. victoriae
|
Elegant Wattle
|
|
|
|
|
|
Table 6
Some of the Notable Food/Nutritional Characteristics of Australian
Native Food Plants
|
Species
|
Food Use
|
Vitamins
|
Energy/100g
|
Analysis
|
|
Acacia
spp
(Wattle seed)
|
Flour, flavouring, infusion drink
|
|
1480 ± 270 KJ
|
26% protein
26% available carbohydrate
32% fibre
9% fat
|
|
Syzygium leuhmannii
(riberry)
|
As raw fruit
(and in preserves etc)
|
|
325KJ
|
0.9% protein
0.4% fat
|
|
Kunzea pomifera
(muntries)
|
As raw fruit and in a variety of products
|
|
|
|
|
Tetragonia tetragonoides
(Warrigal greens)
|
Cooked vegetable
|
|
61KJ
|
1.7% protein
0.3% fat
|
|
Podocarpus elatus
(Illawara plum)
|
As raw fruit and in a variety of products
|
|
347KJ
|
0.2% protein
0.2% fat
|
|
Davidsonia pruriens
(Davidson's plum
|
As raw fruit and in a variety of products
|
Highest known value of any tested plant
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
Table 7: Native Food Plants Subject to Plant Breeders
Rights
|
Common Name
|
Scientific Name
|
Registered Variety
|
|
Desert lime
|
Eremocitrus glauca
|
Australian Outback
|
|
Lemon myrtle
|
Backhousia citriodora
|
Harvest Home
|
|
Lilly pilly*
|
Acmena smithii
|
Hedgemaster
Bullock Creek
|
| |
Syzygium australe
|
Blaze
Bush Christmas
Tiny Trev
Aussie Boomer
|
| |
Syzygium paniculatum
|
Lillyput
Undercover
Little Lil
|
|
Macadamia
|
Macadamia integrifolia
|
Hidden Valley A4, A16
|
| |
M. integrifolia x tetraphylla
|
Hidden Valley A38
|
|
Muntries
|
Kunzea pomifera
|
Rivoli Bay
|
|
Native lime
|
Microcitrus australasica
|
Pot of Gold
|
| |
M. australasica var sanguine
|
Rainforest Pink Pearl
|
| |
Microcitrus - hybrid
|
Australian Sunrise
Australian Blood
|
|
Native mint
|
Mentha diemenica
|
Kosiusko
|
|
Quandong
|
Santalum acuminatum
|
Powell's Number One
Frahn's Paringa Gem
|
|
Riberries*
|
Syzygium leuhmannii
|
Petite Bush, Royal Flame
|
|
Sea Celery
|
Apium prostratum
|
Southern Ocean
|
* Although the fruits of lilly pillies and riberries are used within
the industry, the development of these varieties is attributable to the
plant's common usage as an ornamental in parks and gardens.
Source: compiled by Todd Berkinshaw of the University of Adelaide ,
from http://www.dpie.gov.au/agfor/pbr.html, September 1998
|
